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Learn Hebrew Language

Regions where Hebrew is the language of a significant minority This article contains phonetic symbols. Without proper, you may see instead of characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see. This article contains.

Without proper, you may see instead of Hebrew letters. Hebrew (; עִבְרִית‬, Ivrit ( ) or ( )) is a native to, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the and their ancestors, although the language was not referred to by the name Hebrew in the. The earliest examples of written date from the 10th century BCE.

Hebrew belongs to the branch of the language family. Hebrew is the only living language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived. Hebrew had ceased to be an everyday spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the. And to a lesser extent were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and immigrants. It survived into the medieval period as the language of, intra-Jewish commerce, and. Then, in the 19th century, as a spoken and literary language. It became the of Palestine's Jews, and subsequently of the State of.

According to, in 1998, it was the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, mostly from Israel. Is one of the two of the State of Israel (the other being ), while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in communities around the world today. The is also the liturgical tongue of the, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular.

As a foreign language, it is studied mostly by and students of Judaism and Israel, and by and linguists specializing in the and its civilizations, as well as by theologians in Christian seminaries. The (the first five books), and most of the rest of the, is written in, with much of its present form specifically in the dialect that scholars believe flourished around the 6th century BCE, around the time of the. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as ( לשון הקדש‬), 'the Holy Language', since ancient times. Contents. Etymology The modern word 'Hebrew' is derived from the word 'Ivri' (plural 'Ivrim'; English: ), one of several names for the (Jewish and Samaritan) people. It is traditionally understood to be an adjective based on the name of Abraham's ancestor, ('Ever' עבר in Hebrew), mentioned in. This name is possibly based upon the root 'ʕ-b-r' ( עבר) meaning 'to cross over'.

Interpretations of the term 'ʕibrim' link it to this verb; cross over or the people who crossed over the river. In the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit ( יהודית) because ( Yәhuda) was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation (late 8th century BCE (Is 36, 2 Kings 18)). In it is called the 'Language of Canaan' ( שפת כנען). History Hebrew belongs to the. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the family of languages.

According to Avraham Ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the and during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a spoken vernacular in ancient times following the, when the predominant international language in the region was.

Hebrew was extinct as a colloquial language by, but it continued to be used as a literary language and as the liturgical language of Judaism, evolving various dialects of literary, until its in the late 19th century. Oldest Hebrew inscriptions. Further information: In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist discovered a ceramic shard at which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. Hebrew University archaeologist Amihai Mazar said that the inscription was 'proto-Canaanite' but cautioned that, 'The differentiation between the scripts, and between the languages themselves in that period, remains unclear,' and suggested that calling the text Hebrew might be going too far. The also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, the traditional time of the reign of and. Classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities.

The calendar (named after the city in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the one that through the and later became the. The Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it. The, from the tomb of a royal steward found in, dates to the 7th century BCE. Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from Egyptian.

One ancient document is the famous written in the Moabite dialect; the, found near, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the found near which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by and the Babylonian captivity of 586 BCE. Classical Hebrew Biblical Hebrew.

Main article: In its widest sense, Biblical Hebrew means the spoken language of ancient Israel flourishing between the 10th century BCE and the turn of the 4th century. It comprises several evolving and overlapping dialects. The phases of Classical Hebrew are often named after important literary works associated with them. from the 10th to the 6th century BCE, corresponding to the Monarchic Period until the Babylonian Exile and represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible , notably the Song of Moses (Exodus 15) and the Song of Deborah (Judges 5). Also called Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew. It was written in the.

A script descended from this, the, is still used by the. Hebrew script used in writing a Torah scroll.

Note ornamental 'crowns' on tops of certain letters. around the 8th to 6th centuries BCE, corresponding to the late Monarchic period and the Babylonian Exile. It is represented by the bulk of the Hebrew Bible that attains much of its present form around this time. Also called Biblical Hebrew, Early Biblical Hebrew, Classical Biblical Hebrew (or Classical Hebrew in the narrowest sense)., from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BCE, that corresponds to the Persian Period and is represented by certain texts in the, notably the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Basically similar to Classical Biblical Hebrew, apart from a few foreign words adopted for mainly governmental terms, and some syntactical innovations such as the use of the particle she- (alternative of 'ʾasher' 'that, which, who'). It adopted the (from which the modern Hebrew script descends). is a proposed northern dialect of biblical Hebrew, attested in all eras of the language, in some cases competing with late biblical Hebrew as an explanation for non-standard linguistic features of biblical texts.

Early post-Biblical Hebrew. Hebrew from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, corresponding to the Hellenistic and Roman Periods before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the Qumran Scrolls that form most (but not all) of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Commonly abbreviated as DSS Hebrew, also called Qumran Hebrew.

The Imperial Aramaic script of the earlier scrolls in the 3rd century BCE evolved into the of the later scrolls in the 1st century CE, also known as ketav Ashuri (Assyrian script), still in use today. from the 1st to the 3rd or 4th century CE, corresponding to the Roman Period after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the bulk of the and within the and by the Dead Sea Scrolls, notably the letters and the. Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew. Sometimes the above phases of spoken Classical Hebrew are simplified into 'Biblical Hebrew' (including several dialects from the 10th century BCE to 2nd century BCE and extant in certain Dead Sea Scrolls) and 'Mishnaic Hebrew' (including several dialects from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE and extant in certain other Dead Sea Scrolls). However, today, most Hebrew linguists classify Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew as a set of dialects evolving out of Late Biblical Hebrew and into Mishnaic Hebrew, thus including elements from both but remaining distinct from either.

By the start of the Byzantine Period in the 4th century CE, Classical Hebrew ceases as a regularly spoken language, roughly a century after the publication of the Mishnah, apparently declining since the aftermath of the catastrophic around 135 CE. Displacement by Aramaic. See also: Around the 6th century BCE, the conquered the ancient, destroying much of and exiling its population far to the East in. During the, many learned Aramaic, the closely related Semitic language of their captors. Thus for a significant period, the elite became influenced by Aramaic. After conquered Babylon, he allowed the Jewish people to return from captivity.

As a resulta local version of Aramaic came to be spoken in Israel alongside Hebrew. By the beginning of the, Aramaic was the primary colloquial language of, and Jews, and western and intellectual Jews spokebut a form of so-called continued to be used as a vernacular in Judea until it was displaced by Aramaic, probably in the 3rd century CE. Certain, Hermit, Zealot and Priest classes maintained an insistence on Hebrew, and all Jews maintained their identity with Hebrew songs and simple quotations from Hebrew texts. While there is no doubt that at a certain point, Hebrew was displaced as the everyday spoken language of most Jews, and that its chief successor in the Middle East was the closely related Aramaic language, then, scholarly opinions on the exact dating of that shift have changed very much. In the first half of the 20th century, most scholars followed Geiger and Dalman in thinking that Aramaic became a spoken language in the land of Israel as early as the beginning of Israel's in the 4th century BCE, and that as a corollary Hebrew ceased to function as a spoken language around the same time.

Segal, Klausner, and Ben Yehuda are notable exceptions to this view. During the latter half of the 20th century, accumulating archaeological evidence and especially linguistic analysis of the Dead Sea Scrolls has disproven that view. The Dead Sea Scrolls, uncovered in 1946–1948 near revealed ancient Jewish texts overwhelmingly in Hebrew, not Aramaic. The Qumran scrolls indicate that Hebrew texts were readily understandable to the average Israelite, and that the language had evolved since Biblical times as spoken languages do. Recent scholarship recognizes that reports of Jews speaking in Aramaic indicates a multilingual society, not necessarily the primary language spoken. Alongside Aramaic, Hebrew co-existed within Israel as a spoken language. Most scholars now date the demise of Hebrew as a spoken language to the end of the, or about 200 CE.

It continued on as a literary language down through the from the 4th century CE. The exact roles of Aramaic and Hebrew remain hotly debated. A trilingual scenario has been proposed for the land of Israel.

Hebrew functioned as the local with powerful ties to Israel's history, origins, and golden age and as the language of Israel's religion; Aramaic functioned as the international language with the rest of the Middle East; and eventually Greek functioned as another international language with the eastern areas of the Roman Empire. According to another summary, Greek was the language of government, Hebrew the language of prayer, study and religious texts, and Aramaic was the language of legal contracts and trade. There was also a geographic pattern: according to Spolsky, by the beginning of the Common Era, ' was mainly used in Galilee in the north, Greek was concentrated in the former colonies and around governmental centers, and Hebrew monolingualism continued mainly in the southern villages of Judea.' In other words, 'in terms of dialect geography, at the time of the Palestine could be divided into the Aramaic-speaking regions of Galilee and Samaria and a smaller area, Judaea, in which was used among the descendants of returning exiles.'

In addition, it has been surmised that was the primary vehicle of communication in coastal cities and among the upper class of, while Aramaic was prevalent in the lower class of Jerusalem, but not in the surrounding countryside. After the suppression of the in the 2nd century CE, Judaeans were forced to disperse. Many relocated to Galilee, so most remaining native speakers of Hebrew at that last stage would have been found in the north. The Christian contains some Semitic place names and quotes.

The language of such Semitic glosses (and in general the language spoken by Jews in scenes from the New Testament) is often referred to as 'Hebrew' in the text, although this term is often re-interpreted as referring to Aramaic instead and is rendered accordingly in recent translations. Nonetheless, these glosses can be interpreted as Hebrew as well. It has been argued that Hebrew, rather than Aramaic or Koine Greek, lay behind the composition of the. (See the or for more details on Hebrew and Aramaic in the gospels.) Mishnah and Talmud. Main article: The term 'Mishnaic Hebrew' generally refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible.

The dialects organize into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Hebrew I), which was a, and Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a. The earlier section of the Talmud is the that was published around 200 CE, although many of the stories take place much earlier, and was written in the earlier Mishnaic dialect. The dialect is also found in certain Dead Sea Scrolls. Mishnaic Hebrew is considered to be one of the dialects of Classical Hebrew that functioned as a living language in the land of Israel.

A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the (, etc.) and the expanded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the. The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere; the generic term for these passages is.

The dialect of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew. About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew fell into disuse as a spoken language. The later section of the Talmud, the, generally comments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in two forms of Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Hebrew, which sometimes occurs in the text of the Gemara. Because as early as the Torah's transcription the Scribe has been the highest position in Judaism, Hebrew was always regarded as the language of Israel's religion, history and national pride, and after it faded as a spoken language, it continued to be used as a among scholars and Jews traveling in foreign countries. After the 2nd century CE when the exiled most of the Jewish population of Jerusalem following the, they adapted to the societies in which they found themselves, yet letters, contracts, commerce, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry, and laws continued to be written mostly in Hebrew, which adapted by borrowing and inventing terms. Medieval Hebrew.

Kochangadi Synagogue in, India dated to 1344. After the Talmud, various regional literary dialects of evolved. The most important is or Masoretic Hebrew, a local dialect of in that became the standard for vocalizing the and thus still influences all other regional dialects of Hebrew. This Tiberian Hebrew from the 7th to 10th century CE is sometimes called 'Biblical Hebrew' because it is used to pronounce the Hebrew Bible; however, properly it should be distinguished from the historical Biblical Hebrew of the 6th century BCE, whose original pronunciation must be reconstructed.

Tiberian Hebrew incorporates the remarkable scholarship of the (from masoret meaning 'tradition'), who added and to the Hebrew letters to preserve much earlier features of Hebrew, for use in chanting the Hebrew Bible. The Masoretes inherited a biblical text whose letters were considered too sacred to be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The, precursor to the, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century, likely in, and survives to this day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence. During the, important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the of.

Important Hebrew grammarians were, and later (in Provence). A great deal of poetry was written, by poets such as, and, in a 'purified' Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative or strophic meters. This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets. The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from and motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. This is used in the translations made by the family.

(Original Jewish philosophical works were usually written in Arabic.) Another important influence was, who developed a simple style based on for use in his law code, the. Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and the Aramaized Rabbinic Hebrew of the Talmud. Hebrew persevered through the ages as the main language for written purposes by all Jewish communities around the world for a large range of uses—not only liturgy, but also poetry, philosophy, science and medicine, commerce, daily correspondence and contracts.

There have been many deviations from this generalization such as 's letters to his lieutenants, which were mostly in Aramaic, and ' writings, which were mostly in; but overall, Hebrew did not cease to be used for such purposes. This meant not only that well-educated Jews in all parts of the world could correspond in a mutually intelligible language, and that books and legal documents published or written in any part of the world could be read by Jews in all other parts, but that an educated Jew could travel and converse with Jews in distant places, just as priests and other educated Christians could converse in Latin. For example, Rabbi wrote the in Hebrew, as opposed to, as a guide to for the ' average 17-year-old' (Ibid. Introduction 1).

Similarly, the, Rabbi 's purpose in writing the was to 'produce a work that could be studied daily so that Jews might know the proper procedures to follow minute by minute'. The work was nevertheless written in Talmudic Hebrew and Aramaic, since, 'the ordinary Jew of Eastern Europe of a century ago, was fluent enough in this idiom to be able to follow the Mishna Berurah without any trouble.'

Main article: Hebrew has been revived several times as a literary language, most significantly by the (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th-century Germany. Near the end of that century the Jewish activist, owing to the ideology of the ( שיבת ציון, Shivat Tziyon, later ), began reviving Hebrew as a modern spoken language. Eventually, as a result of the local movement he created, but more significantly as a result of the new groups of immigrants known under the name of the, it replaced a score of languages spoken by Jews at that time. Those languages were Jewish dialects of local languages, including (also called 'Judezmo' and 'Ladino'), and (Tajiki), or local languages spoken in the such as, and. The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along the 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew. New words and expressions were adapted as from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda) and older Aramaic and Latin. Many new words were either borrowed from or coined after European languages, especially English, Russian, German, and French.

Modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921 (along with English and Arabic), and then in 1948 became an official language of the newly declared. Hebrew is the most widely spoken language in Israel today. In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously Israeli Hebrew, Modern Israeli Hebrew, Modern Hebrew, New Hebrew, Israeli Standard Hebrew, Standard Hebrew, and so on. Israeli Hebrew exhibits some features of from its local Jerusalemite tradition but adapts it with numerous neologisms, borrowed terms (often technical) from European languages and adopted terms (often colloquial) from Arabic. The literary and narrative use of Hebrew was revived beginning with the Haskalah movement. The first secular periodical in Hebrew, (The Gatherer), was published by in (today's ) from 1783 onwards. In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-language newspapers (e.g., founded in in 1856) multiplied.

Prominent poets were and; there were also novels written in the language. The as a was initiated in the late 19th century by the efforts of Eliezer Ben-Yehuda. He joined the and in 1881 immigrated to, then a part of the. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the ' lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the and into everyday. However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in by different grammar and style, in the writings of people like and others.

His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the activity into a gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904–1914 that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the more highly organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion. A constructed modern language with a truly Semitic vocabulary and written appearance, although often European in, was to take its place among the current languages of the nations. While many saw his work as fanciful or even (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of the British Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages.

A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. After the establishment of Israel, it became the. The results of Ben-Yehuda's lexicographical work were published in a dictionary ( The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew). The seeds of Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British Palestine.

Hebrew Language History

At the time, members of the and a very few sects, most notably those under the auspices of, refused to speak Hebrew and spoke only Yiddish. In the, the use of Hebrew, along with other Jewish cultural and religious activities, was suppressed. Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew 'reactionary' since it was associated with, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to education (the language itself did not cease to be studied at universities for historical and linguistic purposes ). The official ordinance stated that Yiddish, being the spoken language of the Russian Jews, should be treated as their only national language, while Hebrew was to be treated as a foreign language.

Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s. Despite numerous protests, a policy of suppression of the teaching of Hebrew operated from the 1930s on. Later in the 1980s in the, Hebrew studies reappeared due to people struggling for permission to go to Israel.

Several of the teachers were imprisoned, e.g., and others responsible for a Hebrew learning network connecting many cities of the USSR. Modern Hebrew.

Modern Hebrew is the primary official language of the State of Israel. As of 2013, there are about 9 million Hebrew speakers worldwide, of whom 7 million speak it fluently. Currently, 90% of Israeli Jews are proficient in Hebrew, and 70% are highly proficient.

Some 60% of Israeli Arabs are also proficient in Hebrew, and 30% prefer speaking Hebrew over Arabic. However, in 2013 Hebrew was the native language of only 49% of Israelis over the age of 20, with, and being the native tongues of most of the rest. Some 26% of and 12% of Arabs reported speaking Hebrew poorly or not at all. Due to the current climate of and, steps have been taken to keep Hebrew the primary language of use, and to prevent large-scale incorporation of English words into Hebrew vocabulary.

The of the currently invents about 2,000 new Hebrew words each year for modern words by finding an original Hebrew word that captures the meaning, as an alternative to incorporating more English words into Hebrew vocabulary. The municipality has banned officials from using English words in official documents, and is fighting to stop businesses from using only English signs to market their services. In 2012, a bill for the preservation of the Hebrew language was proposed, which includes the stipulation that all signage in Israel must first and foremost be in Hebrew, as with all speeches by Israeli officials abroad. The bill's author, MK, stated that the bill was proposed as a response to Hebrew 'losing its prestige', and children incorporating more English words into their vocabulary. Hebrew is also an official national minority language in, since 6 January 2005.

Phonology This article contains phonetic symbols. Without proper, you may see instead of characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see. Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the, which is an, or consonant-only script of 22 letters. The ancient is similar to those used for and. Modern scripts are based on the 'square' letter form, known as Ashurit (Assyrian), which was developed from the Aramaic script. A script is used in handwriting: the letters tend to be more circular in form when written in cursive, and sometimes vary markedly from their printed equivalents.

Thank you to: (List specific people by name) More detailed thank you wording: First we would like to give thanks to God for blessing us with each other. Website thank you page examples.

The medieval version of the cursive script forms the basis of another style, known as. When necessary, vowels are indicated by diacritic marks above or below the letter representing the syllabic onset, or by use of, which are consonantal letters used as vowels. Further diacritics are used to indicate variations in the pronunciation of the consonants (e.g. Bet/ vet, shin/ sin); and, in some contexts, to indicate the punctuation, accentuation, and musical rendition of Biblical texts (see ). This is a portion of the blessing that is traditionally before the (reading of the Torah).

Problems playing this file? Hebrew has always been used as the language of prayer and study, and the following pronunciation systems are found., originating in Central and Eastern Europe, is still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad, particularly in the and other communities. It was influenced by the Yiddish language. Is the traditional pronunciation of the and in the countries of the former, with the exception of. This pronunciation, in the form used by the Jerusalem Sephardic community, is the basis of the of Israeli native speakers. It was influenced by the language.

Is actually a collection of dialects spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the and world. It was possibly influenced by the and, and in some cases by, although some linguists maintain that it is the direct heir of and thus represents the true dialect of Hebrew. The same claim is sometimes made for or Temanit, which differs from other Mizrahi dialects by having a radically different vowel system, and distinguishing between different diacritically marked consonants that are pronounced identically in other dialects (for example gimel and 'ghimel'.) These pronunciations are still used in synagogue ritual and religious study, in Israel and elsewhere, mostly by people who are not native speakers of Hebrew, though some traditionalist Israelis are bi-dialectal. Many synagogues in the diaspora, even though Ashkenazi by rite and by ethnic composition, have adopted the 'Sephardic' pronunciation in deference to Israeli Hebrew. However, in many British and American schools and synagogues, this pronunciation retains several elements of its Ashkenazi substrate, especially the distinction between and. See also. Find more about Hebrew languageat Wikipedia's.

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